THE NEWSPAPER AND THE HISTORIAN
BY
LUCY MAYNARD SALMON
"Is there anything in the paper, Sir?"
"Anything in the paper! All the world is in the paper. Why, Madam , if you will but read what is written in the Times of this very day, it is enough for a year's history, and ten times as much meditation ."—Thackeray.
NEW YORK
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
AMERICAN BRANCH: 35 WEST 32ND STREET
LONDON , TORONTO, MELBOURNE AND BOMBAY
1923
Copyright, 1923
By Oxford University Press
American Branch
PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
MEMORIAE
A. J. ET H. J.
FILIAE PATRISQUE
PREFACE
Peccavi should be the opening word of many prefaces. A consciousness of much left undone that ought to have been done, and of much done that ought not to have been done, detracts from the pleasure that otherwise might have been felt in passing from one piece of work to another. But the delinquent and offender may at least be heard in his own defense, and state what his object has and has not been.
The object of writing this book has been to discover if possible the advantages and the limitations of the periodical press, especially the newspaper, considered as historical material, and thus to determine the extent of its usefulness to the historian in his efforts to reconstruct the past. It therefore attempts to give an analysis of the component parts of the press, with a sufficient number of examples to illustrate or to justify the conclusions that have been deduced.
It is not the object of the book to give a history, even a fragmentary one, either of the newspaper or of journalism. It is not to be considered a brief for the press, or an indictment of the press, ore a "presentation of both sides of the case"; in a sense, it does not concern itself at all with the press, since the person ultimately in mind has been the student of history. But while it shows the pitfalls the historian must encounter in his use of the newspaper, it may also incidentally indicate how unnecessary has been the alarm constantly raised through the blanket arraignment of the press, and how inherent are the dangers found in the general statement.
The present volume considers the essential characteristics of the newspaper as they affect the historian and as they are made known by the newspaper itself, unaffected by official control. It considers the press only on its esoteric side. If in the discussion of the relations of the newspaper and the historian the newspaper has occupied the foreground, it is hoped that it will be found that all lines have converged on the historian in the background.
Many extracts from the newspapers themselves have been given since the newspaper is both consciously and unconsciously its own best record of its aimsand its methods of attaining them. Since it is essential to the purpose of the book to consider testimony, to weigh evidence, and to arrive at decisions, it is necessary to hear the evidence given by the press itself. A large number of the citations have been taken from the New York City papers, in part for reasons of convenience, and in part because news-collecting associations have standardized news, and advertising clubs and fashion have in a measure standardized advertisem*nts. Illustrative newspapers, however, from practically every state in the Union, and many from other countries, have been examined, and it is thus hoped that no undue basis will be found for the charge of generalizing from insufficient data.
A companion volume now in press is entitled The Newspaper and Authority. This considers the advantages and the limitations of the press considered with reference to external control. The questions of regulation of the press, all forms of censorship of the press, freedom of the press, libel laws, press bureaus, press publicity, and press propaganda suggest conditions where the press is limited by an authority outside of itself. This exoteric side of the press and all its relations to external authority must be examined by the historian as well as the limitations arising from conditions within the press itself.
My obligations to others seem out of all proportion to the results visible in the book. They include a group of colleagues and friends, V. Barbour, L. F. Brown, E. Ellery, I. C. Thallon, and C. M. Thompson, all of whom have read the manuscript wholly or in part, and have at all times lent a listening ear as each new interest in the subject has developed. A group of friends, M. L. Berkemeier, R. L. Lowrie, H. Rottschaefer, and E. M. Rushmore, have given untiring help in the collection of material. Friends have sent to the Vassar College Library special copies of newspapers from all over the world; they can not all be named individually, but special gratitude goes to K. B. Béziat for newspapers from France covering a wide range of in terests and localities during 1914–1915; to Charles Upson Clark for copies of Italian papers during the war; to Burges Johnson for the material collected for the Vassar College Library in 1918; and to A. L. Walker for many consecutive numbers and special copies of Greek newspapers. H. M. Bartlett and M. Newcomer have contributed copies of inscriptions in London in memory of British war correspondents. C. Saunders has been a friendly adviser.
Special acknowledgment must gratefully be made to L. F. Brown for the preparation of the Biographical Notes and to Henry S. Fraser for making the Index and reading the proof. My obligations to F. G. Davenport, M. Relf, E. Rickert, Frank G . Royce, A. Underhill, B. C. Wilcox, and President Henry Noble MacCracken have been great and constant.
The courtesy of librarians in arranging inter-library loans has made possible the use of books loaned the Vassar College Library from the libraries of Columbia, Cornell, Harvard, and Yale Universities, the New Bedford Free Public Library, the New York State Library, and the Library of Congress. Frequent use has also been made of the important collections of the New York Public Library. An abiding sense of appreciation for such kindnesses must remain with every one who has had similar opportunities.
All those to whom acknowledgment has directly or indirectly been made are absolved from all responsibility for errors of omission or commission; the ultimate liability for such errors must rest with the writer alone. The closing word must be peccavi.
L. M. S.
Poughkeepsie, New York,
April 23, 1923.
Introduction | ||
Page | ||
The use of periodical literature as an historical source | xxxvii | |
Its legitimacy not yet unquestioned | xxxviii | |
Demand of historian for authoritative material | xxxviii | |
Standards of authoritativeness for other classes | xxxix | |
No standard of authoritativeness for the press | xxxix | |
Skepticism in regard to credibility of the press | xxxix | |
Reasons for skepticism | xxxix | |
Recent more favorable attitude of historians | xl | |
How far can the press be considered authoritative | xl | |
Analysis of press into component parts | xli | |
Tests to be applied to separate parts | xli | |
Importance of contemporary material | xli | |
How far is the historian justified in considering the press authoritative material | xlii |
Chapter I | ||
| ||
The Development of the Newspaper | ||
Universal desire for news | 1 | |
Means of gratifying it in Greece | 2 | |
The Roman journal | 2 | |
The early Gauls | 3 | |
Les nouvellistes | 3 | |
Nouvelles à la main | 4 | |
The English coffee house | 5 | |
News letters in the provinces | 5 | |
The news letter in Scotland | 6 | |
Paper criers and caddies | 6 | |
Broadsides | 7 | |
Bulletin boards | 8 | |
The town crier | 8 | |
Plantation guests | 8 | |
News facilities in New England | 8 | |
Distribution of news on the Continent | 8 | |
Genesis of the newspaper in England | 9 | |
Renaudot and the Gazette de France | 9 | |
Creed of Renaudot | 10 | |
Development of modern newspaper | 10 | |
Accretion of new interests | 10 | |
Decline of "the scoop" | 11 | |
Undertakings abroad | 11 | |
Collective activities of the press | 12 | |
Activities of a single newspaper | 12 | |
Early activities of the Athenæum | 13 | |
Important expeditions financed by the press | 13 | |
A twentieth century daily | 13 | |
Activities of Renaudot | 14 | |
Early efforts to stimulate circulation | 14 | |
Prizes and medals | 14 | |
Effect of inventions on growth of the press | 15 | |
Manufacture of paper | 15 | |
Facilities for distribution | 16 | |
Increase in influence of the press | 16 | |
Growth of business management | 16 | |
Dangers feared from this | 17 | |
Increased circulation both cause and result | 17 | |
Newspaper no longer a personal organ | 17 | |
The press groups society and unifies groups | 17 | |
Specialized groups | 18 | |
Press exploits group hostility | 18 | |
Religious journalism | 19 | |
Lord Acton and the Roman Catholic press | 19 | |
F. D Maurice and the religious press | 19 | |
Orthodoxy and heterodoxy in America | 20 | |
Regroupings in the religious press | 21 | |
Problems of religious and of political press different | 21 | |
Similar tendencies in the political press | 21 | |
New interests demand new channels of expression | 22 | |
Society journals | 23 | |
Amateur journals | 23 | |
College journalism | 24 | |
Journalism of the trench | 24 | |
Early journals for troops | 24 | |
Early journalism of women | 25 | |
Labor journals | 26 | |
Foreign language press | 26 | |
Journalism of undeveloped groups | 26 | |
Prison journalism | 26 | |
Fluctuating interests reflected in the press | 27 | |
Widening interests recorded by press | 27 | |
Syndicated articles | 28 | |
Changes in character of the press | 28 | |
Undue emphasis on abnormal events | 28 | |
Mr. Dooley on the news | 29 | |
Personal journalism | 30 | |
The yellow press | 30 | |
Changes in relative importance of various parts of press | 31 | |
Connection of the newspaper with the past | 32 | |
Changes important for historian | 32 | |
The newspaper and expansion of interests | 32 | |
Party journalism | 33 | |
Appearance of the Times | 33 | |
The independent press | 34 | |
Effect of education on the press | 34 | |
Function of newspaper changing | 34 | |
Newspaper repeats experience of museum of natural science | 35 | |
And of public library | 35 | |
And of method of writing history | 35 | |
Newspaper records its own times | 36 | |
Historian must examine sources of news | 36 | |
Press in part records these sources | 36 | |
Records imperfectly governmental control | 36 | |
Increasing complexity of the press | 37 | |
Historian must consider these transformations | 37 | |
Different tests for authoritativeness for different classes | 38 | |
Difference between the press and journalism | 38 | |
Changing tendencies in the press do not lessen its value for the historian | 39 | |
| ||
Chapter II | ||
The Newspaper as a Personality | ||
Personality eludes definition | 40 | |
Elements contributing to personality | 40 | |
External features of the newspaper | 40 | |
Beliefs and opinions of the newspaper | 41 | |
Business habits of the newspaper | 42 | |
Ideals expressed in mottoes adopted | 43 | |
Appeals made to readers | 44 | |
Daily observations | 45 | |
Creeds | 46 | |
Names of newspapers | 47 | |
Names indicating functions | 48 | |
Changes in name | 49 | |
Favorite names in different countries | 50 | |
Nicknames given to newspapers | 50 | |
Nicknames given by newspapers | 50 | |
Emblems used by the press | 51 | |
Headlines | 51 | |
Price | 52 | |
Sense of proportion | 53 | |
Changing standards of conventionality | 53 | |
Cartoons | 54 | |
Early discourtesy of the newspaper | 54 | |
The Covent-Garden Journal | 54 | |
Personal abuse common | 55 | |
Dickens on abuse in American papers | 55 | |
De Tocqueville on American journalists | 55 | |
Matthew Arnold on personality of American press | 55 | |
Walt Whitman on the press | 56 | |
Ill temper of newspapers | 56 | |
Provincial spirit | 56 | |
Independence of view | 56 | |
"Letters to the editor" | 57 | |
These characteristic of American and British press | 58 | |
"Answers to correspondents" | 59 | |
The Athenian Gazette | 59 | |
John Dunton and Defoe | 59 | |
Infallibility of the press | 60 | |
Omniscience of the press | 60 | |
"The Dogma of Journalistic Inerrancy" | 60 | |
"A saving sense of humor" | 61 | |
Charles Lamb and his "sixpenny jokes" | 61 | |
Professional humorists | 61 | |
"The colyum" | 61 | |
Personality seen in questions selected or omitted | 62 | |
Special editions | 63 | |
Differences in personality of metropolitan and of country press | 63 | |
Contrasts in personality of dailies, weeklies, and monthlies | 63 | |
Personality affected by personality of editor | 64 | |
But personality of paper independent of editor | 64 | |
Eccentric newspapers | 65 | |
Interest in such papers psychological rather than historical | 65 | |
Anonymity as an element in personality | 65 | |
Tendency towards signature | 66 | |
Signature favors pamphleteering | 66 | |
Explanation of change in tendency | 66 | |
Zola on signature | 67 | |
French law requiring signature | 67 | |
Effect of this in France | 67 | |
Effect of signature on personality of press | 68 | |
Advocates for and against signature | 68 | |
Schopenhauer on anonymity | 69 | |
Daily and weekly press accept signature in part | 70 | |
Monthlies and quarterlies accept signature wholly | 70 | |
John Morley on signature | 70 | |
Experiments of The Unpopular Review | 70 | |
Effect of controversy on periodical press | 71 | |
Authoritativeness as affected by anonymity or signature | 71 | |
National preferences | 71 | |
The press an organ or a forum | 72 | |
The "wegotism" of the press | 73 | |
Comparative merits of both systems | 73 | |
"Have Papers Souls?" | 73 | |
Efforts to determine personality by comparing relative proportions of subjects | 73 | |
Matthew Arnold and the personality of the Times | 74 | |
Historian must understand personality of periodicals used | 74 | |
| ||
Chapter III | ||
Guarantees of Probability | ||
General constitutional guarantees | 75 | |
Specific guarantees of federal government | 75 | |
Federal post office and the press | 76 | |
State laws affording guarantees | 77 | |
Federal government the authority for information | 77 | |
State governments responsible for information | 77 | |
Responsibility of local governments | 77 | |
Guarantees under normal conditions | 77 | |
Guarantees afforded by press itself | 78 | |
Regulations of press for protecting readers | 78 | |
Explicit guarantees given | 79 | |
Guarantees as a business enterprise | 80 | |
Guarantees given advertisers | 81 | |
Information guaranteed by the press | 82 | |
Guarantees afforded by business interests | 83 | |
The church responsible for religious notices | 83 | |
Responsibility of educational authorities | 83 | |
Health boards a source of information | 84 | |
Responsible organizations behind information | 84 | |
Permanent sources of information | 84 | |
Importance of guarantees in using the press | 84 | |
| ||
Chapter IV | ||
The Press and Other Activities | ||
PAGE | ||
"No man liveth unto himself" | 85 | |
Expansion of classes of material used by the historian | 85 | |
Connection between press and government | 85 | |
Specific questions involved | 86 | |
Official patronage | 86 | |
Advertisem*nts | 87 | |
Political office and the press in France | 87 | |
Political honors in England | 88 | |
Financial rewards for the press | 89 | |
Effect of government connection on authoritativeness | 89 | |
Party organs declining | 90 | |
General effect of connection between press and governmental parties | 90 | |
Relation between press and Church | 91 | |
Explanation of relation | 91 | |
Mutual dependence of press and Church | 92 | |
Compromise on disagreements between the two | 92 | |
Effect of mutual relation on authoritativeness of the press | 93 | |
Effect where Church is independent | 93 | |
Effect of an established Church | 93 | |
Effect of still different conditions in America and France | 94 | |
The newspaper and public health | 95 | |
Press supports certain conditions of health | 95 | |
Cautious on other sides of public health | 96 | |
Caution needed by historian | 96 | |
The press in the industrial world | 97 | |
May incur enmity of employers | 97 | |
Minimum wage for journalists | 97 | |
The press as a business enterprise | 98 | |
Its own difficulties | 98 | |
The press and social welfare | 98 | |
Its general social activities | 98 | |
Social activities among newsboys | 99 | |
Welfare work among its own employees | 99 | |
La Prensa | 99 | |
Object of welfare work unimportant to historian | 100 | |
Welfare work through correspondence columns | 100 | |
Social workers apparently indifferent to press | 101 | |
Mutual relations of press and education | 101 | |
Interest of press in education | 101 | |
Interest of education in the press | 101 | |
Embarrassment of the press in dealing with education | 102 | |
The press and literature | 103 | |
Early dependence of press on authors | 103 | |
Change in press interests | 104 | |
Change in literary style of the press | 104 | |
Crude form does not necessarily vitiate material | 104 | |
Opposite literary tendencies seen | 105 | |
Important literary works in the newspaper | 106 | |
Disadvantages of collecting newspaper articles into book form | 106 | |
Differences between journalism and literature | 107 | |
Effect of headline on English language | 108 | |
The headline and spelling | 109 | |
Catling on the headline | 109 | |
Headlines and the historian | 109 | |
Services of the press to language | 110 | |
The newspaper and the library | 110 | |
Press records library development | 110 | |
Library interested in the material newspaper | 111 | |
W. C. Ford on preservation of newspaper files | 111 | |
Early indifference of library to newspaper files | 112 | |
Concern of historian with these questions | 113 | |
Interdependence of press and all human activities | 113 | |
| ||
Chapter V | ||
News-Collecting and News-Distributing Organizations | ||
Ben Jonson's "staple of newes" | 115 | |
Bureaux et pelotons | 116 | |
Edward Cave and his exchange | 116 | |
Alaric Watts and Blackwood | 116 | |
The "partly-printed newspapers" of Watts | 116 | |
Organization of the Central Press | 117 | |
The Press Association | 118 | |
Reuters | 118 | |
Importance of news collecting agencies | 118 | |
Beginnings of news collecting in America | 119 | |
The Journal of Commerce | 119 | |
Development of the Associated Press | 119 | |
Its plan of organization | 120 | |
News collecting agencies and the historian | 121 | |
Criticisms made of the Associated Press | 121 | |
Examination of these criticisms | 121 | |
Charge of "suppressing the facts" dismissed by Court | 124 | |
Infallibility not claimed by or for the Associated Press | 124 | |
Associated Press not responsible for changes made by others | 125 | |
Precautions and preparation of Associated Press | 126 | |
Accessories of life | 475 | |
Tendency toward specialization | 475 | |
Changes in character of illustration | 475 | |
Fashions in humor | 476 | |
Interest in health shown | 476 | |
Industrial conditions | 476 | |
Illustrations an aid to justice | 476 | |
Changes in celebrating holidays shown | 477 | |
Easter in the illustration | 477 | |
Reconstruction through foreign language press | 477 | |
The illustrated advertisem*nt | 478 | |
Changes in character | 478 | |
Advertisem*nt shows new demands | 478 | |
Reconstruction through advertisem*nts of department store | 479 | |
Wide range of interests disclosed | 479 | |
But reconstruct only favorable conditions | 480 | |
Other advertisem*nts record adverse conditions | 480 | |
Effect of a serious fire on advertisem*nts | 480 | |
Strikes in advertising | 480 | |
"Out of work" | 480 | |
"Help wanted" | 481 | |
Effect of war on advertising | 482 | |
The seamy side shown | 482 | |
Miseries of war disclosed by advertisem*nts | 482 | |
War and industrial society | 483 | |
Prohibition and liquor in advertisem*nts | 484 | |
Parts of the press less helpful in reconstruction | 484 | |
The press in reconstructing social life | 484 | |
The country press | 485 | |
The press in high life | 485 | |
England in the Spectator | 487 | |
Frontier conditions in the press | 487 | |
Test of place of press in reconstruction | 488 | |
Limitations of authority | 490 | |
Importance of press in reconstructing normal life | 491 | |
Appendix I: Biographical Notes | 493 | |
Appendix II: Bibliographical Notes | 517 | |
Index | 523 |
ILLUSTRATIONS
Théophraste Renaudot | Frontispiece | |
From a statue in Paris. The pedestal symbolizes the Maison du Grand Coq where many of the activities of Renaudot were carried on. | ||
Les Nouvellistes | Facing Page | 4 |
From F . Funck-Brentano, Les Nouvellistes. | ||
The First English Newspaper, December 2, 1620 | 9 | |
See Page 115. | ||
The First English Newspaper, July 9, 1621 | 115 | |
This shows the progress made in the arrangement of the paper since the appearance of the first number the previous December. | ||
War Correspondents' Monument | 213 | |
Erected in the Blue Ridge Mountains in honor of the War Correspondents of the American Civil War. The photograph was secured through the courtesy of Miss Grace Terry, Washington, D. C. | ||
The Ulster County Gazette | 420 | |
This gives the headings of sixteen of the twenty-four known reprints of a possible issue of January 4, 1800. The variations in type, paragraphing, and minor details indicate that they can not all be "an original copy." | ||
Fetridge and Company's Periodical Arcade | 474 | |
From an unidentified periodical |